3.31.2011

羅爾斯的公民不服從概念 測試 原日期 20110331, 於 20160118 改標籤

★ 羅爾斯「公民不服從」概念的理論位置或外在環境 初論 ★
★ 陳立民(陳哲) ★

論述「公民不服從」或「市民不服從」(civil disobedience)的經典著作之一是羅爾斯(John Rawls)的《正義論》(A Theory of Justice)。該書第二部份論「制度」(Institutions),此部份有三章,最後一章也就是全書第六章論「義務與責任」(Duty and Obligation),在此章中他提出「公民不服從」這個概念。此概念必須從該書整體架構來瞭解。該書第二部份談制度,制度的基本是法律。一般公民受到的教育是人民遵守法律的義務。他在第六章談到對於法律與制度的義務與責任的思路線索下,提出公民不服從概念。這個意義是指出,公民對於既有的制度的義務有其界線,超過了界線可以不服從。羅爾斯這本書的主題是正義。因此,責任與義務,重要的是對於正義的責任與義務,而非對於現行制度現行法律的責任與義務。在第六章他先討論「遵守不正義法律的義務」(The Duty to comply with an Unjust Law)與「(民主政治)多數決規則的地位」(The Status of Majority Rule)之後提出公民不服從概念。換句話說,是因為面對惡法的問題,與掌握多數的政黨做掉民主制度時,公民有為了正義而不服從法律與制度的責任與義務。此書出版於1971年,在1960年代美國的大事是黑人民權運動與反越戰。這些罷工、罷市、罷課、佔領校園等手段都是在抗議者先使用「合法」手段窮盡而無效之後,才採取的「公民不服從」與其他手段。這些手段最後也得到了成果。雖然此書全書未提到越戰,也未提到Anti-任何東西的運動,但這可能是此概念的時代背景。羅爾斯主張「公民不服從」仍是守法的,但這守法是遵守一個接近正義水準的社會(this theory is designed only for the special case of a nearly just society, one that is well-ordered for the most part but in which some serious violations of justice nevertheless occur.)。羅爾斯主張「公民不服從」應在合法的範圍內,也是他個人的看法,有些學者主張可以違法合法的。例如在該節第十九註釋中,羅爾斯引用Howard Zinn對於「公民不服從」的定義“the deliberate, discriminate violation of law for a vital social purpose”,這是經過深思熟慮、想清楚之後、慎重的、謹慎的、不是亂來的行為。再如,更早在1849年發表《論公民不服從》一文的美國作家梭羅(Henry David Thoreau)主張:「當政府是暴政或政府過於無能令人無法忍受時,有權拒絕為其效忠,並有抵制它的權利」。這也是主張可以違背專制政權法律的。
在羅爾斯第59節中的一段可看到他的標準看法: "As always, I assume that the society in question is one that is nearly just; and this implies that it has some form of democratic government, although serious injustices may neverthelsss exist. In such a society I assume that the principles of justice are for the most part publicly recognized as the fundamental terms of willing cooperation among free and equal persons. By engaging in civil disobedience one intends, then to address the sense of justice of the majority and to serve fair notice that in one's sincere and considered opinion the conditons of free cooperation are being violated." 對這一段版主是失望的,講清楚需解釋許多對於政治的基本看法,版主則傾向於在其他文章中系統地論述這些看法。
羅爾斯的概念是否適合用在台灣也可議,因為台灣是否是個符合羅爾斯所說接近正義的社會是個問題,很明顯地台灣目前民主的水準尚不及美國60年代的水準。台灣有些人會認為,台灣已相當民主,這種看法可能錯誤的原因是,這是以台灣一般的標準衡量的,但應該是以歐美先進國家的民主最標準,台灣人一般的視野不夠,未見到民主完整的光譜。羅爾斯論「公民不服從」概念中,引用最多的民主理論是羅伯達爾(Robert A. Dahl)的民主理論。版主於2009/2/13在某份「陳哲給xx」的建議中對此理論及其他相關有些說明,此處暫時無瑕整理這些與繼續討論。這個組織不能繼續其「公民不服從」初衷,必然只有把這概念讓給別人。

★ 羅爾斯的公民不服從行動 是可以違法的 ★
許多人認為羅爾斯《正義論》(A Theory of Justice)一書中的公民不服從理論是限制在體制內的,也就是不違法的。版主認為羅爾斯這一部份寫得不很好,一致性不夠。下面這一句是反駁這些說法的例子:“Although this mode of action is strictly speaking contrary to law, it is nevertheless a morally correct way of maintaining a constitutional regime”(p.337). 翻譯:(公民不服從)這種行動,雖然嚴格說是違法的,但為了維持憲政政體這卻是一條道德上正確的路。句中的「嚴格說」使用不當,這句應是說公民不服從是會違法的,但是因為這些違法的不服從行為維護了憲法原則,所以這些行為是合乎道德的。版主認為羅爾斯應講得更清楚:公民不服從行動雖然違法,但是護憲,而且合道德。這句話反駁了許多對於羅爾斯公民不服從觀念的說法,版主認為羅爾斯的公民不服從是可以違法的。版主一般對此的說法是:遵守道德勝於遵守統治者設定的法律。順便提一下,台灣桂冠圖書出版,原中國大陸翻譯,經台灣校閱的《正義論》一書,譯錯的地方很多,懂中文的人看不懂語意,這是一般中國大陸譯書的水準。


2008/4/6刪掉來
原日期 09/04/06

★中國哲學是感性的★

中華文化是感性的

中國文化是感性的, 這不是與其他文化比較的不同特色, 而是還沒有長大.

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲)

3.30.2011

生命中的人際關係 測試日期

妻子久病厭世 丈夫共赴黃泉陪燒炭

〔2009/2/7 10:39 自由電子報 即時新聞〕

原日期 20110330, 並未自定日期.
20161118 自訂

今天凌晨4點半,台北縣八里傳出夫妻燒炭自殺死亡的悲劇,兩人的屍體在龍米路的一輛汽車內被發現。警方表示,自殺原因疑似是60歲的婦人久病厭世,平日感情很好的丈夫眼見妻子十分痛苦,決定與她共赴黃泉。據悉,兩名死者昨日晚間突然徹夜未歸,子女苦尋不著,先以失蹤人口報警,沒多久後,在家中發現父母留下來的遺書,才驚覺事態嚴重,雖然趕緊動員親朋好友幫忙找人,卻還是造成難以挽回的遺憾。
陳立民:老夫婦一人先死,常常另一人悲傷,沒多久就跟著死去。大多數人知道個人內在生活的重要性,這見於家人對每個人的重要性。這裡面有很多可以分析的,個人此處先聚焦其重要性。

★ 雜感 ★
胡志強市長要求大家救救她太太的一幕讓人動容,這一幕顯示的就是我們生命中的人際關係。
說到我們自己,「每天辛苦工作一天,下班後我們如何慰勞自己呢?答案多是:和家人、好友相聚。」這是個人的觀察。這項事實也顯示出人際關係對我們生活的重要性。
那些被醫師告知將不久於人世的人,都突然發現自己所真正在乎的是生命中的幾個人,而非財物,並後悔未付出更多時間與他們相處。
根據人性,人有相當強烈之與人相連結的需求。那些將人生目標、將時間放在累積財富上的人,總是發現:「人生走錯了路 !!!」
也有許多人較早感受到人際連結的重要,卻以為這不需要學習,或以為自己有足夠的知識,結果實際上他們只是根據傳統觀念與社會模式經營自己的人際關係。不幸,許多這些傳統觀念洽對我們造成傷害。

★宗教反人生★宗教反快樂★宗教落後於時代★教宗居然說 保險套導致愛滋病 他犯了公共危險罪★

教宗 2009/3/17 說 保險套導致愛滋病

抗愛滋 教宗反對用保險套
【 2009/03/19 聯合報╱編譯陳世欽/綜合報導 】

天主教教宗本篤 16 世 17 日抵達喀麥隆,展開上任後的首次非洲訪問行程。在被愛滋病蹂躪的非洲大陸,他譴責使用保險套,並表示有更好方式對抗愛滋。

81 歲的教宗表示,愛滋病是「悲劇,不能只用金錢克服,也不能以保險套遏止,這種方式甚至使問題更嚴重。」他表示,解決問題有賴於「心靈與人類的覺醒」,以及「對受難者的友愛情感」。

這是教宗首次針對保險套發表公開談話,不但引起議論,並使宣導安全性行為的愛滋防治志工感到氣餒。

法國外交部 18 日發表聲明,「強烈關切」教宗反對以保險套對抗愛滋病的說法,聲明中稱教宗的談話「對公共衛生政策和保護生命的責任都是一大威脅」。
教廷一直呼籲世人以禁慾和婚姻忠貞遏止愛滋擴散。教宗雖然曾在當選後表示,愛滋是「殘酷的傳染病,不但足以致人於死,更足以危及非洲大陸的經濟及社會安定」,不過他強調,教廷絕不改變禁用保險套的一貫立場。

★中國哲學與中華文化批判★

中國哲學與中華文化是感性的

「世界中華文化批判論壇」。

★★★本日 20110311 以後文章都發表過

本日以後文章都發表過
哲學是高風險的學問

2.28.2011

「下個二二八就是六四」;比較二二八事件與六四天安門大屠殺事件 (陳哲於2012年)

2017 年是二二八事件 70 週年,最特別的是,中國官方對此舉辦紀念活動,試圖搶奪二二八話語權。對此許多人批評,並比較二二八事件與六四天安門事件。其中中國學運領袖與民運人士王丹說:下個二二八就是六四」,將台灣的二二八事件比喻為六四天安門事件

如果兩岸統一或台灣被中國併吞,「下個二二八就是六四」。在馬英九擔任總統時代, 個人每年與人權陣線戰友在二月二十八日到台北二二八和平公園外抗議國民黨與馬英九,當時都是用「下個 228 就是六四」的標語。幾年前王丹出書或發表此說法時,曾透過台聯向我徵求同意使用此語及照片,我欣然同意。

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲)

「下個 228 就是六四」這個標語在媒體上發佈最早是在   2011/02/28 的自由時報:



上為 2011/2/26 我們「拒統陣線」在總統府對面長榮基金會外面抗議中國海協會畫面,此為次日自由時報刊登照片,照片中可見「下個 228 就是六四」看板。
上為 2011/2/28 我們「拒統陣線」參加二二八大遊行,照片中可見「下個 228 就是六四」看板。20110228
上為 2011/2/28 我們「拒統陣線」參加二二八大遊行,照片中可見「下個 228 就是六四」看板。20110228



上為 2011/2/28 我們「拒統陣線」參加二二八大遊行,美女便當盒手執的看板上見「下個 228 就是六四」。20110228

「下個 228 就是六四」這個標語發佈在   2012/2/29 的自由時報:http://news.ltn.com.tw/news/focus/paper/564491上為自由時報照片.



上為現場另兩張照片,其中插腰背對鏡頭的即陳哲本人,地上即為「下個 228 就是六四」標語,陳哲面對遠處二二八受難者紀念碑,與包括馬英九在內的紀念會人群,還有看管我們的警察。20120228



上為一小時後我們轉到二二八公園另一門抗議的照片。
陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲)

12.21.2010

2010/12/20-22 陳哲與「網友行動平台」、「拒統陣線」戰友在台北圓山大飯店山下抗議兩岸海基海協會的第六次江陳會

2008 年國民黨與馬英九重回執政,國民黨剝奪民主並與中共聯手走統一路線,台灣進入最危險的時代,個人則走上第一線對抗國共。哲學多講理論,這則是個人人生的「哲學實踐」或「道德實踐」時代。

兩岸海基海協會的第六次江陳會談 2010/12/20-22 在台北圓山大飯店舉行,山下亦被列為管制區,現場風聲鶴唳,無人也無社團敢進入。陳立民(陳哲)與「網友行動平台」、「拒統陣線」戰友則深入管制區連續抗議三日。
 
上面這張照片是國台辦出資在香港的中評社在 2010-12-20 下午 14:34:13   發佈的新聞照。地點是圓山飯店下方的中山橋頭,可見拒統陳哲(在道德的字下方)與「拒統陣線」戰友合舉「統一是不道德的!」(Unification Is Unethical!) 超大看板,照片右方與右上之外就是中山橋,可見一位穿綠色上衣的交通警察,即九位穿深色衣服的都是穿便衣的警察。照片左側外面還有幾部悍馬車和警車以及二三十位重裝警察。我們後面放置一些個人創作的看板,其中有一個簡體字「復仇」的看板,那是另一位中國籍抗議者帶來。


上面這張香港中共外圍的媒體中評社照片是2012年12月20日在圓山飯店山下入口處拍攝的,照片右外面就是上下山出入口,可見大批警察與所設置的拒馬。照片遠處左方就是在中山橋頭抗議的我們,遠處最左一位為個人手持白色抗議看板,數倍警力包圍我們,最左地上見個人放置的抗議看板。
上面這張是陳立民(陳哲)的特寫,站在中山橋頭面對圓山飯店出入處高舉「拒統」,等待陳雲林與海協會出來時抗議,個人背後照片外有多位警察與便衣盯場,和前一日一樣。這次抗議的獨派較少,照片見我們距離大約六十公尺

前一日國台辦幕後出資的香港媒體中評社發出一條新聞的標題為「第六次江陈会 绿营抗争力道减弱」,這張照片的說明為「这些独派团体只在警力封锁线外的几百公尺举举布条,表达心意。(中评社 黄筱筠摄)」。「只在警力封鎖線外幾百公尺」這說法是錯誤的,事實上距離大概六十公尺而已,而且這段距離是道路。此外,我們是最靠近圓山飯店的。這條新聞的內容為「中評社台北 12  20 日電(記者 黄筱筠)舉行第六次江陳會的台北圓山飯店,入口處架起層層拒馬,以及部署大批警力,仍遭到獨派突擊。」

上方照片網址:
http://hk.crntt.com/doc/1015/4/3/8/101543824_2.html?coluid=7&kindid=0&docid=101543824&mdate=1220143328

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲

11.24.2010

蔡英文新北市市長選舉 決戰72小時投票前記者會 陳哲執「幸福是交給信任的手」手板站在蔡英文身後


2010/11/24蔡英文主席參加新北市市長選舉,投票前三日,決戰72小時記者會上,陳哲與戰友被蕭美琴允許,執自創「幸福是交給信任的手」文宣站在蔡英文與議員候選人身後。
2010/11/24蔡英文主席參選新北市市長選舉,投票前三日,決戰72小時記者會上,陳哲與戰友被蕭美琴允許,執「幸福是交給信任的手」手板站在蔡英文與議員候選人身後。
陳立民 Chen Lih Ming(陳哲)


2010/11/24   蔡英文主席參選新北市市長投票前三日,決戰72小時記者會上,陳哲與戰友被蕭美琴允許,執「幸福是交給信任的手」手板站在蔡英文與議員候選人身後。

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming(陳哲)


9.16.2010

陳立民(陳哲)的選舉文宣「幸福來報到」與「幸福是交給信任的手」

陳立民(陳的選舉文宣「幸福來報到」

2008年民進黨大敗,個人認為國民黨與馬英九政權限縮民主與統一路線對台灣未來造成很大危險,當時個人最認同黨主席蔡英文溫和理性的路線。

2010916日,蔡英文登記參選新北市市長,「登記」的英文是「register」,此字中文有時也翻譯為註冊、報到等。蔡英文參與「新」北市市長選舉的文宣主軸為「新北市 新幸福」。從登記、報到、新幸福三個概念中個人創作出「幸福來報到」的文宣。在蔡英文團隊登記後拍照時,個人與戰友站到團體的後方外側高舉「幸福來報到」文宣。本照片為新頭殼新聞照片,該則新聞標題「蔡英文登記 自推是新北市長最佳人選 新頭殼newtalk | 陳冠廷 北縣報導 發布 2010.09.16 | 13:11」。

數日後有民調顯示蔡英文最受信任,個人因此創作出「幸福是交給信任的手」文宣,09/26有媒體記錄,這在選舉團隊最後一波文宣「安心交給我」之前,下見民視報導。




「幸福來報到」文宣於 2011/11/23 蔡英文登記參選總統時再度使用,見下照片。

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming(陳哲)


 陳立民(陳的選舉文宣「幸福來報到」

2008年民進黨大敗,個人認為國民黨與馬英九政權限縮民主與統一路線對台灣未來造成很大危險,當時個人最認同黨主席蔡英文溫和理性的路線。

2010916日,蔡英文登記參選新北市市長,「登記」的英文是「register」,此字中文有時也翻譯為註冊、報到等。蔡英文參與「新」北市市長選舉的文宣主軸為「新北市 新幸福」。從登記、報到、新幸福三個概念中個人創作出「幸福來報到」的文宣。在蔡英文團隊登記後拍照時,個人與戰友站到團體的後方外側高舉「幸福來報到」文宣。

本照片為新頭殼新聞照片,該則新聞標題「蔡英文登記 自推是新北市長最佳人選 新頭殼newtalk | 陳冠廷 北縣報導 發布 2010.09.16 | 13:11」。

數日後有民調顯示蔡英文最受信任,個人因此創作出「幸福是交給信任的手」文宣,09/26有媒體記錄,這在選舉團隊最後一波文宣「安心交給我」之前,見民視照片。

「幸福來報到」文宣在2011/11/23蔡英文登記參選總統時再度使用,見下照片。

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming(陳哲)

9.03.2010

★宇宙非造物者創造. 人類為演化而來. 霍金提天文物理學證據★

任何勇於追求真理的人到處可見到宇宙非上帝創造的, 亦非亙古如此的.

同樣, 人類是演化而來的.生物學(或生命科學)本身就是進化論的(evolutionary biology). 能否定整個生物學嗎? 任何宗教都無法提供可檢驗的證據.

這是一則很好的新聞, 希望編輯與翻譯提供更多這類消息與證據. 只是標題稍嫌保守, 有無改口是小事. 甚至是不是霍金講都不重要.

Stephen Hawking 新書標題 "The Grand Design" 可能不佳, 因為既非好設計也無設計者.

神造世人時, 製造了沉默殺手 (silent killer), 例如不到肝癌末期我們感覺不到, 使我們人生的計劃無法完成.

「台灣反宗教者聯盟」陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲)

 
下為 2010/9/3 自由時報的一則新聞:
 
霍金改口 稱宇宙非上帝所創造


英國最頂尖、也是最有名的理論物理學家霍金(歐新社)

〔編譯羅彥傑/綜合報導〕英國最頂尖、也是最有名的理論物理學家霍金在即將問世的新書中,一改先前說法,聲稱上帝並未創造宇宙,至於「大爆炸」也不是上帝介入後的產物,而是物理定律無可避免產生的後果。


物理大師新書「大計畫」
霍金與美國物理學家麥洛迪諾合著的新作「大計畫」(Grand Design),預定本月九日出版,書摘二日已搶先刊登在泰晤士報。

六十八歲的霍金,靠著一九八八年探討宇宙起源的暢銷書「時間簡史」,贏得全球一致認可,而且他當時似乎接受上帝在宇宙創造過程中扮演要角的說法。他寫道:「我們如果能發現一個完整的理論,那將是人類理性的終極勝利,因為屆時我們應該會了解上帝的心意」。不過在新書中,他卻說新的理論顯示「並非非造物主不可」。

大膽挑戰牛頓學說
本書大膽挑戰牛頓的學說。牛頓認為,宇宙不可能自混沌狀態中創造,而一定是出於造物主的設計。但霍金寫道:「由於有諸如重力等定律的存在,宇宙能夠、而且也將會無中生有地自我創造。自我創造正是無中生有、宇宙為何存在以及我們為何存在的原因。沒有必要祈求上帝點亮生命之火及推動宇宙運行。」霍金在「大計畫」中表示,一九九二年發現一枚行星繞著太陽之外的另一顆恆星軌道運行,有助於解構物理學之父牛頓的觀點。他提到:「這使得我們巧合般的行星條件─包括只有一個太陽、太陽與地球距離適中及太陽的質量恰當等─變得不算特別,也難以有效證明地球出於精心設計只是為取悅人類。」

罹患側索硬化肌萎縮症的霍金,自一九七九年起一直是劍橋大學盧卡斯數學講座教授,但去年他辭去此一牛頓也擔任過的榮銜。

自由時報這則新聞可能主要是下面的翻譯.
 
God did not create the universe, says Hawking


EmailPrint.. AFP/File – God no longer has any place in theories on the creation of the Universe due to a series of developments …

Slideshow:Physicist Stephen Hawking .

By Michael Holden Michael Holden – Thu Sep 2, 9:08 am ET

LONDON (Reuters) – God did not create the universe and the "Big Bang" was an inevitable consequence of the laws of physics, the eminent British theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking argues in a new book.

In "The Grand Design," co-authored with U.S. physicist Leonard Mlodinow, Hawking says a new series of theories made a creator of the universe redundant, according to the Times newspaper which published extracts on Thursday.

"Because there is a law such as gravity, the universe can and will create itself from nothing. Spontaneous creation is the reason there is something rather than nothing, why the universe exists, why we exist," Hawking writes.

"It is not necessary to invoke God to light the blue touch paper and set the universe going."

Hawking, 68, who won global recognition with his 1988 book "A Brief History of Time," an account of the origins of the universe, is renowned for his work on black holes, cosmology and quantum gravity.

Since 1974, the scientist has worked on marrying the two cornerstones of modern physics -- Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, which concerns gravity and large-scale phenomena, and quantum theory, which covers subatomic particles.

His latest comments suggest he has broken away from previous views he has expressed on religion. Previously, he wrote that the laws of physics meant it was simply not necessary to believe that God had intervened in the Big Bang.

He wrote in A Brief History ... "If we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason -- for then we should know the mind of God."

In his latest book, he said the 1992 discovery of a planet orbiting another star other than the Sun helped deconstruct the view of the father of physics Isaac Newton that the universe could not have arisen out of chaos but was created by God.

"That makes the coincidences of our planetary conditions -- the single Sun, the lucky combination of Earth-Sun distance and solar mass, far less remarkable, and far less compelling evidence that the Earth was carefully designed just to please us human beings," he writes.

Hawking, who is only able to speak through a computer-generated voice synthesizer, has a neuro muscular dystrophy that has progressed over the years and left him almost completely paralyzed.

He began suffering the disease in his early 20s but went on to establish himself as one of the world's leading scientific authorities, and has also made guest appearances in "Star Trek" and the cartoons "Futurama" and "The Simpsons."

Last year he announced he was stepping down as Cambridge University's Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, a position once held by Newton and one he had held since 1979.

"The Grand Design" is due to go on sale next week.

(Editing by Steve Addison)



The Reference Frame網頁在下文中提到英國衛報(The Guardian)的書評:
Stephen Hawking: The Grand Design
The Guardian promotes Stephen Hawking's new book, co-written with Leonard Mlodinow, by the following provoking title: Stephen Hawking says the Universe not created by God.

The book will be out on September 7th - in five days. A creator is unnecessary because the Universe has inevitably come into existence because of M-theory, i.e. the full laws of quantum gravity. "M-theory is the unified theory Einstein was hoping to find," he correctly explains.


At the amazon.com page of the book, the authors sketch the content of the book. The book will defend the multiverse and present the recent results on the theoretical and experimental front - especially string/M-theory and the observations of COBE and WMAP. They "assess M-Theory, an explanation of the laws governing the multiverse, and the only viable candidate for a complete 'theory of everything'."

So don't expect any politically correct bullshitting about random crackpots' delusions being as viable as M-theory. ;-)


For Stephen Hawking, the elimination of God from the laws of physics seems to be an unusually high "research goal". And while I don't quantitatively understand what this goal could exactly mean, I kind of understand him. He has been given quite some circumstantial evidence that no good God is in control of this particular Universe or multiverse.

Pre-order the book via the amazon.com link at the top if you care and if you want a guaranteed 40% discount.

Where is Boyle's beef?
Alan Boyle (MSNBC) and others are very skeptical about the "beef" of the claim that something has to arise from nothing according to the laws of physics. I largely disagree with Alan Boyle.

First of all, many people are confused by the range of validity of mass or energy conservation. They think that it's not possible to violate this law. However, in Why and how energy is not conserved in cosmology, I have explained that the energy conservation only holds if the laws of physics - and the appropriate background - is time-translationally invariant which is not true, in any useful sense, in cosmology.

So the intuition that "something cannot arise from nothing" is flawed as soon as one takes the insights of general relativity into account. However, science can actually go further than that. In principle, it can also study whether some space or matter is actually created and how it looks like.

The laymen - including some atheists - have the tendency to think that such questions eternally belong to God and religions and they're not accessible to science. However, this opinion is incorrect according to state-of-the-art theoretical physics. Science can discuss the very beginning of the existence.

It's a very different question whether we completely understand these issues - we don't - but I think it's fair to say that we understand enough to know that such questions are likely to follow some laws that are accessible to the scientific research.

Already with our incomplete understanding as of 2010, we can say many things. Inflation can explain why the Universe is flat, large, and much heavier than the Planck mass (order 1 in fundamental units) but it doesn't quite get to the "Planck time" away from the ultimate birth. However, we also have candidate laws - such as the Hartle-Hawking wave function - that can determine the initial conditions as well.

So Hawking's statements are not really willy-nilly today - and the book will surely try to substantiate the "big claims" about God in some technical detail.


Source: http://motls.blogspot.com/2010/09/stephen-hawking-grand-design.html




霍金又開示:神學無其必要 【2010/09/12  15:25】


〔中央社〕神學是沒有必要的。全球知名物理學家霍金(Stephen Hawking)繼發表新書主張宇宙非上帝創造之後,又在電視上如是說。

霍金在10日播出的「賴利金現場」(Larry King Live)中說:「上帝可能存在,但是科學可以解釋宇宙不需要一個創世者。」

68歲的霍金在新書「大計畫」(The Grand Design,暫譯)中說,因為有地心引力,宇宙本身就可以從無到有。霍金主張,「自發性創造」是為何宇宙和人類存在的原因。

當被問及他對自己著作引發熱烈迴響有何看法時,霍金說:「科學越來越足以回答過去一向屬於宗教領域的問題。科學的說法就很完整了。神學是沒有必要的。」

霍金表示,他的書試著「對於宇宙如何運作以及我們在其中的位置」提出一個「廣泛的景象」。

霍金告訴賴利金:「科學就足以解釋宇宙。我們不需要上帝來解釋為什麼世界上有這個有那個,或自然法則的箇中道理。」



Theology unnecessary, Stephen Hawking tells CNN
By the CNN Wire StaffSeptember 11, 2010 -- Updated 1106 GMT (1906 HKT)

(CNN) -- Theology is unnecessary. So says Stephen Hawking, the world-famous physicist who controversially argues in a new book that God did not create the universe.


"God may exist, but science can explain the universe without the need for a creator," Hawking told CNN's "Larry King Live" in an interview that aired Friday.

Hawking, 68, says in his book "The Grand Design" that, given the existence of gravity, the universe can and will create itself from nothing. "Spontaneous creation," he writes, is the reason why the universe and humanity exist.

"Gravity and quantum theory cause universes to be created spontaneously out of nothing," Hawking told Larry King.

King asked Hawking why he thinks people have reacted so strongly to his book.

"Science is increasingly answering questions that used to be the province of religion," Hawking replied. "The scientific account is complete. Theology is unnecessary."

Hawking said his book is an attempt to give a "broad picture of how the universe operates and our place in it. It is a basic human desire and it also puts our worries in perspective."

The idea behind it is "M-theory," which, he says, allows there to be many universes that were created out of nothing, none of which required the intervention of God.

That's because if there are many universes, one will have laws of physics like ours -- and in such a universe, something not only can, but must, arise from nothing, Hawking says. Therefore, he concludes, there's no need for God to have played a part.

That's the point of his book, Hawking told King -- "that science can explain the universe, and that we don't need God to explain why there is something rather than nothing, or why the laws of nature are what they are."

Hawking said that if he could travel through time -- which he said is theoretically possible -- he would go to the future to "find if M-theory is indeed a theory of everything."

Hawking has ALS, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which has confined him to a wheelchair and leaves him unable to speak without the help of a computerized voice synthesizer. The disease is also known as Lou Gehrig's Disease in the United States and motor neuron disease, or MND, in Britain.

He told King he's doing "pretty well" with the disease, 45 years after he was first diagnosed. The disease has a life expectancy of two to five years, according to the ALS Association.

12.23.2009

陳哲追逐中國海協會陳雲林到大甲鎮瀾宮 拒絕走上統一不歸路

 「三月瘋媽祖」,大甲鎮瀾宮媽祖今年遶境啟程,個人反宗教不會想去,但曾到鎮瀾宮門外。

那是2009年12月23日海基會董事長江丙坤陪同中國海協會陳雲林一行參訪大甲鎮瀾宮時機,當日個人跟隨台中的台灣國「台灣中國一邊一國」戰車沿路追逐,在鎮瀾宮外幾十公尺處戰車就被擋下。
「三月瘋媽祖」,大甲鎮瀾宮媽祖今年遶境啟程,個人反宗教不會想去,但曾到鎮瀾宮門外。

那是2009年12月23日海基會董事長江丙坤陪同中國海協會陳雲林一行參訪大甲鎮瀾宮時機,當日個人跟隨台中的台灣國「台灣中國一邊一國」戰車沿路追逐,在鎮瀾宮外幾十公尺處戰車就被擋下。上第一張照片見個人在車上高舉「拒絕走上統一不歸路」看板宣傳。
因為我們距離陳雲林一行還有幾十公尺,上第二張照片見個人曾下車企圖步行前進,但被便衣與制服警察層層包圍,個人上衣背面見自製的「台獨份子」貼紙,照片遠處鎮瀾宮信徒驚見我們幾個突然冒出來鬧場的人,不信有人敢公然反國民黨政府,近處的警察與民眾則想看個人這個當場被困的「台獨份子」會做出什麼「暴力」舉動,個人很遺憾國家要大家一起來救,結果當地人都做壁上觀,看個人演戲,即使現場實力懸殊現場還是劍拔弩張。


個人自稱「台獨份子」,致力於洗清國民黨抹黑「台獨份子」的暴力形象,也同時要展現勇敢的台灣人精神,於是第三張照片見個人在現場還是突破警力阻擋前進,到個人不能再動時就跳上阻擋的紐澤西護欄上繼續高舉看板宣傳,這是當日台灣獨派所能到達的最前線,這畫面刊上次日自由時報。自由時報照片可見網址:https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/focus/paper/361068

陳立民 Chen Lih Ming (陳哲)

3.17.2009

如公民社會

原在 "發表文章" 處看日期 20090317.

深刻意義, 因為是人的內在生活, 深情自我, 跟著感覺走, 凍未條, 人有追求幸福的權力


短短一生, 無人知來過此世界, 為少數人活, 探病的人, 參加喪禮的人.

3.16.2009

殯葬並無禮儀

就像其他儀式一樣, 如結婚,結婚照, 都是商業商人創造的, 殯葬儀式也是一樣. 結婚不需儀式人,

省錢, 少則十幾萬, 多則幾百萬.



















《送行者》、《哀悼人》先後獲獎死亡禁忌 再成日本創作話題
2009-02-24 中國時報 【黃菁菁/東京廿三日電】
《送行者:禮儀師的樂章》獲得奧斯卡金像獎最佳外語片獎,此片討論生死觀的問題,無獨有偶,日前公布的日本文學大獎,第一百四十屆「直木獎」的得主天童荒太,也是以描寫生離死別的《哀悼人》獲獎,死亡這個禁忌話題,近來在日本成了最熱門的話題,也引發許多省思。
 《送行者》是日本近來難得叫好又賣座的作品。
 男主角本木雅弘年輕時到印度旅行,讓他開始思考生死觀的問題,後來讀了青木新門寫的《納棺夫日記》一書,知道有納棺師這個行業,向瀧田洋二導演提議拍成電影,而成功地將納棺師的故事變成一個探討生死大義,夾雜著幽默而不沈悶,讓觀眾無不感動落淚的好作品。
 其故事是描寫一個大提琴手因交響樂團解散而失業,帶著妻子從東京回到故鄉山形縣,找工作時被「旅行的幫手」廣告詞所吸引,沒想到應徵的工作竟是專門美化遺體,將遺體收棺入殮的「納棺師」。
 片中對納棺師面對儀體時慎重的神情與具美感的動作,對工作和夢想的驕傲,一般人對喪葬業的誤解、排斥,遺族與死者之間割捨不斷的真情等都細膩刻劃。主角也從工作及遺族的感謝中體會到「讓冰冷的遺體回春,化為永恒美麗」的神聖意義。
 至於直木獎作品《哀悼人》,則是描寫一個喜歡見證死亡現場的年輕人,他從新聞報導中得知有死亡事件時,便趕往現場憑弔素未謀面的死者,藉由主角的觀點探討人命輕重的問題。
 四十八歲的作者天童為了寫這部探討生、死主題的長篇小說,花了七年實際去觀察生離死別的現場,他像主角一樣親自到火災和殺人事件的現場,去思考模擬死者的心情。天童說,那真是很痛苦的體驗,回家後往往心情沈重,睡到不醒人事。









送行者用心 逝者有尊嚴
〔2009/3/2 LT 記者蔡彰盛/竹市報導〕「請您輕閉雙眼,讓我送您走完最後一程!」
甫獲今年奧斯卡最佳外語片的日本片「送行者─禮儀師的樂章」,描述原本在東京交響樂團擔任大提琴手的本木雅弘,因樂團突然解散而放棄演奏家之路。失業的他和廣末涼子飾演的妻子回到故鄉山形縣,在報紙上看到「旅途協助工作」的徵職廣告而前往應徵,當場獲得錄用。
後來本木雅弘才知對方徵求的竟是禮儀師,禁不住社長半強迫半利誘說服,他不情願地開始這份工作。
初時本木十分恐懼排斥,還得應付親友的誤解、周遭的鄙夷,讓他數度興起辭職念頭。但在親身經歷一場場送行儀式後,他漸漸瞭解到禮儀師妝扮往生者「走上來生旅途」的重要意義,終能自信地投入工作,並重獲眾人尊敬。
網友說,這是一部以輕鬆積極的態度,面對人生最後旅程的電影,死亡只是一道通往下一關的門,因此每一個人都可以走得美麗安詳,更讓我們體會珍惜當下、珍惜親情與愛情的重要。也有網友說,用專業與愛來送往生者最後一程,不但讓死者得到最後的尊嚴,也讓生者得到寬慰!







美女禮儀師 敬業不怕「死」〔2009/3/2 LT記者蔡彰盛/竹市報導〕她們原本是護士、櫃台小姐與理財專員,卻因為對於人們身後事的好奇,不約而同穿上了送行者的制服,成為生命事業的美女禮儀師,協助往生者走完最後一程,也改變了自己的人生!
新竹市聯合生命事業公司的禮儀師黃于珍,原本是專業護理師,在馬偕醫院擔任過十多年的急診室護士,在急診過程中就看過數不清的生離死別,也因此遇上做禮儀事業的朋友,轉業跨入這一行。
將心比心 贏得尊重
擁有醫療的知識與技術,再加上自修,黃于珍在修補大體這個領域,是業界的佼佼者,舉凡車禍、意外死亡等,缺了什麼皮該怎麼補,頭殼扁了該怎麼用模具、石膏復原,黃于珍都能做到讓家屬滿意。
本來在網咖當櫃台小姐的彭惠君,今年才21歲,但她原本膽子就大,且對生命事業充滿好奇,進這行幾年以來,她始終以與家屬一樣的同理心來處理喪事,見到家屬的悲痛,她也不由自主地掉下眼淚,這些閱歷使得她比同年紀女孩更世故。
她說,父親原本不肯她做這行,但自己本來年少輕狂,脾氣暴躁,如今卻完全變了個人,家屬看在眼裡,早就接受了。
李翠蘋離開理財專員的職務,投入禮儀師行列的原因,是為了這個工作既能行善,又有錢領,她深深體會這行「給家屬安慰,就是最大的回報」道理,儘管觀念保守的長輩嫌做這個怕會「帶東西回去」,但她堅信只要做好分內的事,就能為自己與這份工作,贏得更多的尊重。

































3.11.2009

中國哲學的意識型態

原日期 20090311.

中國哲學的意識型態:天人合一、物我圓融、、、萬法圓融、、第一dimension、。

中國哲學的意識形態中部份是認識論的:物我兩忘、、、、、、、。

當代的牟宗三:、、、、、、、。

3.08.2009

什麼是科幻? 什麼是事實? 彗星撞地球 基督宗教教義危害人類

原在 "發表文章" 處看日期 20090308, 到編輯處未見日期, 20161118 改標籤, 測試日期會怎樣.

不能做幹細胞研究

1989/3/23是否曾出現大彗星, 人類的殺手?

訂做完美baby 髮色膚色自選自由時報 更新日期:2009/03/04 04:09
〔編譯魏國金/綜合3日外電報導〕
曾在1970年代開創試管嬰兒研究風潮的先驅史坦柏格醫師,已讓數千對父母決定子女的性別,現在他更進一步,將在未來半年內讓準父母得以選擇孩子的眼球顏色、膚色與髮色。他說,第一個外觀「訂做寶寶」可望於明年誕生,全程費用為1萬8000美元(台幣63萬餘元)。
這種「訂做寶寶」服務引起生命倫理學家與人權團體的抨擊,天主教教宗本篤十六2週前也對「沉迷製造完美孩子的研究」提出警告。英國不孕症專家拉克伍德質疑,以如此方式應用相關科學是否道德?她批評這不啻「讓寶寶成為你從架上購買的貨物」。

引發人權團體批評
英國廣播公司(BBC)報導,這門科學根基於「胚胎著床前基因診斷」(PGD)技術,亦即在發展尚屬極早期的胚胎中抽出1枚細胞進行檢測,若該胚胎正常健康,則可植入母體子宮。
史坦柏格在紐約曼哈頓與加州洛杉磯經營的「生育研究所」(Fertility Institutes),將應用PGD技術,選擇出有金髮、藍眼等中意基因的胚胎,植入母親子宮繼續妊娠,其他胚胎則予以捨棄。

部分父母有醫學考量
他說,尋求這項服務的準父母或許有醫學與外觀的考量,比如已有孩子罹患黑色素瘤的父母,可能希望有個膚色較深的寶寶,以免日後罹患皮膚癌。當然也有父母純粹希望生出金髮壯丁。
事實上,「生育研究所」已為進行胚胎染色體異常基因篩檢的父母,提供外貌特徵的胚胎選擇服務。該診所網站指出︰「並非所有顧客都可以接受這些檢測,對於眼球顏色、膚色等要求,我們也不保證達到『完美預測』的水準。」
曾參與全球第一個試管嬰兒計畫的史坦柏格說,迄今成效最好的是北歐血統的夫妻檔,因為他們的基因庫被稀釋得最少。

陳立民:批評實在莫名奇妙,買任何東西我們都要自己選,配偶也是自己選,要花精神金錢養大的小孩去不要自己選,莫名奇妙。自己喜歡的小孩會積極認真養。更不談,可以降低生出殘障的小孩。歐美反對多是基督宗教(Christianity)的傳統,部份人權團體其實背後也是基督宗教。
消極

3.05.2009

★ 由彗星撞地球事件 可推論宗教錯誤 ★

大彗星撞地球事件是否可能發生?如果可能,則宗教可能無法成立。以下一則新聞。

新聞:逃過一劫 小行星與地球擦身而過(法新社巴黎:2009/03/3 日電/譯者:張仲琬)
天文學家今天表示,一顆小行星昨天從地球旁呼嘯而過。這顆小行星的體積,約等同於 1908 年西伯利亞(Siberia)上空爆炸的一顆隕石。當時的爆炸威力相當於 1000顆原子彈。
這顆小行星的編號為 2009DD45。美國行星學會(Planetary Society)網站與天文學家的部落格指出,2009DD45 的直徑估計約在 21 公尺至 47 公尺之間,於格林威治時間2日13時44分飛奔過地球。
網站「太空」(Space)指出,2009DD45與地球之間僅差7萬2000公里,相當於地球與月亮之間距離的1/5,或是地球同步軌道上的衛星與地球之間距離的兩倍。
澳洲塞丁泉天文臺(Siding Spring Survey)的天文學家最近一次偵測到2009DD45是在上月28日。國際天文學聯合會(International Astronomical Union)的小行星中心(Minor Planet Centre, MPC)也證實2009DD45的行跡。該團體主要的工作是分類太陽系的小行星。

(陳立民:這顆衛星的直徑約十層樓高,是否曾有類似大小的隕石撞過地球?)
小行星中心的紀錄中,曾與地球最相近的太空石塊是編號2004FU162的小行星。2004FU162的直徑約6公尺,2004年3月從地球旁疾馳而過,與地球的距離不到6500公里。
2009DD45的體積,約等同於1908年6月30日西伯利亞通古斯加(Tunguska)上方爆炸的那顆隕石。通古斯加大爆炸當時在地表上炸出逾2000平方公里的大洞,夷平8000萬棵樹木。

陳立民:恐龍絕種原因有一說是,約6500萬年前,大隕石撞地球,造成如大規模核子彈引爆,導致恐龍絕種。此外,較大型隕石層撞擊地球的證據也有不少。地球大氣層的保護也有其限度。按照現有的證據與天文物理學知識,未來有可能再次發生大規模彗星撞地球事件,並導致人類滅亡。此外人類對於宇宙的了解還太少,宇宙某處大爆炸可能使地球被摧毀。如果人類可能絕種,如何可能有神存在?有天道流行?要否認至今天文物理學、宇宙學的知識可能很困難。如果有神的話,至少在彗星撞地球的前一刻,神像蝙蝠俠一樣在最後拯救地球。到底,什麼是事實?什麼是科幻?
彗星或隕石重地球可能導致人類絕種,彗星是人類的殺手,至今,只有NASA與ESA做這方面的研究與防止工作,因此美國與西歐是值得我們尊敬的。

2.19.2009

流感 病毒證實進化論

宗教假設生物如機械般, 人類是另一領域, 二者俓渭分明, 但其實有些生物有中間現象

例如, 流感有目的的抗藥性。根本上,免疫學也是根據進化論。

染色體的突變,

計劃系統的交配

此外, 猩猩猴子近似人類, 甚至具備自我的雛形

2.01.2009

★Most of us are naturally inclined to cheat★

人性是否是一夫一妻制的? 下為一新聞報導 及相關美國網站上資料
偷吃是天性?美外遇網站正夯
2009/2/1 自由時報〔編譯魏國金/綜合報導〕


美國國家意見研究中心的調查發現,每四名男性中,有一人對伴侶不忠實,每五名女性中,有一人搞外遇。另外,今日美國報的民調顯示,五十四%的美國人坦承,在認識的人中,知道某人的伴侶有外遇。
不管背叛是出於基因或文化,紐約時報的調查發現,不貞的比率在攀升,年輕夫妻或年長男性尤然。在這股不是我騙你,就是等著被騙的兩性風潮下,無怪乎專為已有伴侶的男女而設的美國交友網站AshleyMadison.com,一口氣吸引三百五十萬名會員。AshleyMadison.com標榜的是「人生苦短,來段外遇」。該網站執行長畢德曼說︰「如果你對外遇蠢蠢欲動,我們可以幫你,這是萬無一失的方法。」紐約每日新聞報導說,這個網站作用就是協助搞外遇,但又不會被抓。
畢德曼的自信其來有自,因為該網站的會員不是感情的叛徒,就是在尋覓外遇對像。他說,當他看到交友網站上,許多會員實際上已婚後,就嗅出「與其他外遇者搞不倫」的廣大需求,他想,為何不為這些不甘寂寞的人設立網站?AshleyMadison.com也就應運而生。
五十二歲的新澤西婦女凱倫感謝該網站讓她的十五年婚姻絕處逢生。她說,其夫性趣缺缺,為此兩人爭吵不斷,直到她在網站上找到渴慕她的人,一切都改變了。她說︰「這是如此美好又令人興奮,對方樂於給予讚賞,提升了我的自信,這段地下情改善了我的婚姻。」
畢德曼也附和︰「我挽救的婚姻比摧毀的還多,我每天都收到感謝的電郵。」「我們是動物王國的一部分,…一夫一妻制度不存在於我們的DNA中。」


上述報導中提及網站AshleyMadison.com, 此網站口號為:"Life is short. Have an affair". 下為網站內引為理論根據的一篇文章. 心理學教授David Barash所著.

According to studies of the animal world, most of us are naturally inclined to "cheat" or at least have more than one mate in a lifetime.
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By David Barash
Jan. 23, 2001

For most biologists, the fact that the Rev. Jesse Jackson had an illegitimate child by one of his staffers is neither surprising nor a revelation. We've known for a long time that males from many species tend to be interested in sexual variety, particularly in having more than one partner.

Consider, for instance, this story: A missionary visited a Maori village in 19th century New Zealand and there was a feast in his honor. After the feast, the Maori chief called out, "A woman for the bishop." Noting the scowl on the prelate's face, the obliging chief roared again, even louder: "Two women for the bishop!"

Given the choice, most men would rather have two women than one (although not necessarily at the same time). And they'd rather have three than two. As Margaret Mead once pointed out, monogamy is the most difficult of all marital arrangements. For some time, biologists have had a good idea why. Men are sperm makers. Sperm are cheap and easily replaced. Unlike eggs, they do not require that the guy doing the fertilizing become pregnant, give birth and then nurse his young.

For women -- and females of most other species as well -- the situation is quite different, and, not surprisingly, females tend to be comparison shoppers, and sexually reticent compared to their male counterparts. So the interesting thing about the Jackson affair isn't Jackson's behavior. After all, ever since "The Scarlet Letter" we've been told that even men of the cloth are still men, under the cloth. Rather, it's why Karin Stanford, his paramour, went along.

And here, biologists have finally begun to catch up with common sense. Women, too, have extramarital affairs, and these need not be limited to an unmarried woman having sex with a married man, as with Stanford and Jackson (though it has been reported that she had a boyfriend at the time of her affair with Jackson), or Monica Lewinsky and President Clinton, or Donna Rice and Gary Hart, or ... There are plenty of Madame Bovarys and Anna Kareninas. Adultery is a favorite human topic, in more ways than one.

Enter DNA fingerprinting, and not just for Monica's fabled blue dress. This laboratory technique isn't only useful for identifying unknown soldiers or freeing the falsely convicted. In recent years, it has surprised biologists with a whole new world of screwing around among animals, with likely implications for that troubled animal, Homo sapiens, the one that tries so hard to be monogamous and finds it so terribly difficult.

When we examine the genes of baby birds, even those species long thought to be absolute paragons of monogamous fidelity, we find that 10, 20, sometimes 30 percent of the offspring are not genetically connected to the socially identified father. Social monogamy (what biologists still call, somewhat quaintly, a pair bond) is not the same as sexual monogamy. Several decades ago experimenters vasectomized redwinged blackbirds in the hope of controlling their numbers. But many females, ostensibly mated to only those vasectomized males, laid eggs that hatched! Something funny was going on. But only now, with the accumulation of literally dozens of research studies using DNA data, do we know for sure: Females, even females in species long thought to be sexually faithful, often are not.

In the movie "Heartburn," based on Nora Ephron's barely fictional account of her marriage to the philandering Carl Bernstein, the heroine complains about his infidelity to her father, who responds: You want monogamy? Marry a swan.

Now we are discovering that even swans aren't monogamous!

Why not?

Again, there is no great mystery about why males often make themselves available for extra-pair copulations, or EPCs. The evolutionary payoff in fathering additional children can easily make up for the costs, assuming that some EPCs result in EPFs (extra-pair fertilizations), and the cuckolded male doesn't find out and take violent revenge. Of course, an EPCing male runs other risks as well, such as possible desertion by his own mate, or the chance that while he is trying to seduce someone else's female, that same someone else -- or another -- is making time with his own! But the bigger question, yet to be resolved, is why a female, especially one already mated, should seek EPCs. The costs of discovery can be great (notably violence from her mate or abandonment), whereas the benefits are obscure. Yet seek them they clearly do.

We now know that in numerous species, females go prospecting on the territories of adjacent males, especially when their own mate is off at work, foraging or patrolling the neighborhood perhaps looking for his own EPCs. Sometimes, to be sure, females are coerced into mating, but it is clear that even mated females are often sexual adventurers in their own right, actively soliciting EPCs from males who are not theirs.

It appears that there is no one-size-fits-all explanation for female infidelity among animals. Here are a few; each is valid for at least one species. Some might also shed light on the Madame Bovarys (or Karin Stanfords) among us: For an unmated female, reproducing is generally better than not, even if -- when monogamy is the public norm -- such a reproducing female has to be a single mother. An EPC can provide a female, whether socially mated or not, with fertility insurance, just in case her current partner doesn't produce enough sperm. She might also increase the genetic variety of her offspring by bearing the children of more than one male. An especially important consideration seems to be the genetic quality of her additional lover(s). It is very rare, for example, for already mated females to copulate on the sly with males who are socially subordinate to their current mates. Among those animals in which males sport secondary sexual traits that indicate unusual health and that females find sexually stimulating (bright plumage, enlarged feathers, especially attractive body features of other sorts), females will often mate with those fortunate males who are unusually good specimens, particularly if their own mates are less than prepossessing in this regard.

Barn swallows, for example, have deeply forked tails. The deeper the fork, the greater the appeal to females. Female barn swallows paired with males whose tails are only so-so tend to sneak copulations with neighboring males whose tail forkings have been artificially enhanced by researchers. Among the European birds known as yellowhammers, older males are brighter yellow; their enhanced brightness indicates that they have good longevity genes and also makes them more attractive to female yellowhammers, especially those mated to males whose yellow is less prepossessing.


A female can also gain immediate personal payoffs from successful EPCs. In some cases, she may be permitted to forage on territory maintained by a male, provided that she first copulates with him. When several adults cooperate in provisioning the young, males often adjust their parental efforts depending on their sexual access to the female: more fucking, more feeding. By inducing more than one male to have an interest -- or think he has an interest -- in the outcome of a bout of sex, cagey females reduce their own parenting duties. There are some species, including lions and a number of primates, in which adult males are likely to kill young they have not fathered. It has been suggested that in such cases females may have evolved to be sexually receptive to more than one male as a way of reducing the risk eventually faced by their offspring.
The evidence is now undeniable: Monogamy among animals is more myth than reality. What about human beings?

Here, too, there is no doubt. We are not naturally monogamous. Anthropologists report that the overwhelming majority of human societies either are polygynous or were polygynous prior to the cultural homogenization of recent decades. They also suggest that individuals are mildly polygynous, having evolved in a system in which one man maintains a harem. This, incidentally, helps explain the persistent sex appeal of successful, dominant men, whether they be high-ranking politicians, movie or rock stars, glamorous athletes or wealthy entrepreneurs. Power, as Henry Kissinger once noted, is the ultimate aphrodisiac. At the same time, women can and do seek additional sex partners, even when already mated. Thus, monogamy -- when it occurs -- is shot through with EPCs, not just among birds. Otherwise, why would men have such a powerfully developed tendency for sexual jealousy?

Why, then, does monogamy occur at all? Maybe it's like Winston Churchill's observation that democracy is the worst possible form of government except for all the others that have been tried. At least monogamy is a great equalizer (in theory). It assures that in a species with equal numbers of males and females, no one need be left out. But at the same time, it cannot and does not prevent individuals of either sex from looking elsewhere.

Imagine a society of rigid social monogamy in which women nonetheless seek to be inseminated by the best possible males. Such males are rare, and likely to be already taken. So women might well adopt a kind of ratcheting-up tactic, in which they pair with the best man they can get, and thereby obtain his child-rearing assistance as well as whatever additional material resources he can provide, while also making themselves available for men further up in the hierarchy -- probably charismatic men like Jesse Jackson.

Such a motivation need not be conscious. In fact, a woman who has an affair with an attractive married man may intentionally avoid becoming pregnant. The point is that part of the underlying sexual motivation for the affair likely derives from these factors.

When right-wing Christian moralists worry that family values are under assault, they don't know how right they are! Monogamy, perhaps the poster child of family values, is under profound assault -- but not from any progressive, gay or feminist agenda. Rather, nature is the culprit.

We are imbued by Western culture with monogamous ideals. Yet, like other living things, we're often compelled by our biology to depart from monogamy. Neither men nor women are the primordial purveyors of extra-pair copulations, yet EPCs have dogged and delighted human beings throughout recorded history, and doubtless before. It takes two to do the EPC tango. And human beings love to dance.

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About the writer

David P. Barash is professor of psychology at the University of Washington in Seattle. His most recent book, "The Myth of Monogamy," coauthored with his wife, Judith Eve Lipton, M.D., is to be published this spring.

Source:
http://www.ashleymadison.com/app/public/articles/1.p